Global Distribution of Rare Earth Reserves by Country: Understanding the Foundation of Tech Supply Chains

The outlook for rare earth reserves by country reveals a critical concentration of global supply controlled by just a handful of nations. As the world accelerates its shift toward clean energy and technological advancement, understanding which countries hold these essential materials has become central to geopolitical strategy and industrial planning. With demand for rare earths escalating rapidly, the distribution of reserves across different nations—and the gap between reserve holdings and actual production capacity—presents both challenges and opportunities for stakeholders worldwide.

China’s Overwhelming Reserves Dominance: 44 Million Metric Tons and Counting

China maintains an unassailable position in global rare earth reserves, holding 44 million metric tons—representing roughly one-third of the world’s 130 million MT total. This dominance extends to production as well, with China generating 270,000 metric tons in 2024 alone, accounting for roughly 70% of global output.

The Asian nation’s commitment to preserving its reserves position has shaped global markets for over a decade. Back in 2012, when China announced concerns about declining reserve levels, it prompted a strategic pivot. By 2016, the government established both commercial and national stockpiles specifically designed to maintain reserve strength. Simultaneously, Beijing has systematically shut down environmentally non-compliant and illegal mining operations while regulating production quotas.

These measures have alternated between restriction and expansion. After years of tight export controls—notably the 2010 export cut that triggered global supply panic and a rush to secure alternative sources—China has begun easing production quotas in recent years. The geopolitical dimension intensified when China banned exports of rare earth magnet technology to the US in December 2023, reflecting broader tech-sector competition between the two nations.

More recently, China has begun importing heavy rare earths from Myanmar, circumventing environmental restrictions that limit domestic extraction. This shift has created concerning consequences: the mountains along the China-Myanmar border have sustained substantial damage from intensive mining operations.

Emerging Reserve Leaders: Brazil and India Reshape the Landscape

Brazil holds the world’s second-largest rare earth reserves at 21 million metric tons, yet paradoxically produced only 20 MT in 2024. This dramatic gap illustrates the distinction between reserve potential and operational capacity. That situation is changing rapidly. Serra Verde commenced Phase 1 commercial production at its Pela Ema deposit in Goiás state in early 2024, with projections to reach 5,000 MT of rare-earth oxide annually by 2026. Notably, Pela Ema represents one of the world’s largest ionic clay deposits and will be the only rare earths operation outside China capable of producing all four critical magnet elements: neodymium, praseodymium, terbium, and dysprosium.

India’s reserve position stands at 6.9 million metric tons, supported by the nation’s possession of nearly 35% of global beach and sand mineral deposits—significant sources of rare earths. Indian output reached 2,900 MT in 2024. The government has intensified support for rare earth development: India’s Department of Atomic Energy released capacity assessments in late 2022, and by 2023, policymakers were establishing new legislative frameworks for rare earths research and development. October 2024 marked another milestone when Trafalgar announced plans to construct India’s first rare earth metals, alloy, and magnet manufacturing facility.

Australia and Russia: Secondary Suppliers with Divergent Trajectories

Australia’s 5.7 million metric tons in reserves rank fourth globally, with 2024 production reaching 13,000 MT. Rare earths mining only began in Australia in 2007, but extraction is accelerating. Lynas Rare Earths, operating the Mount Weld mine and concentration plant plus a major processing facility in Malaysia, functions as the world’s largest non-Chinese rare earths supplier. An expansion of the Mount Weld plant is slated for completion in 2025, while Lynas’ new processing facility in Kalgoorlie commenced operations in mid-2024. Hastings Technology Metals’ Yangibana mine, meanwhile, recently secured an offtake agreement with Baotou Sky Rock and expects to deliver first concentrate in Q4 2026, targeting 37,000 MT of annual production.

Russia’s reserves totaled 3.8 million metric tons in 2024, though this represented a significant decline from 10 million MT the prior year based on updated assessments. The country produced 2,500 MT in 2024. Despite Russian government plans announced in 2020 to invest $1.5 billion in rare earths capacity to compete with China, the ongoing Ukraine conflict has effectively frozen domestic sector development priorities.

Transitioning Powers: Vietnam, the US, and Greenland

Vietnam’s 3.3 million metric tons in rare earth reserves by country rankings reflect a dramatic downward revision from 22 million MT in the previous year—a change attributed to revised company and government data. Vietnam produced just 300 MT in 2024, despite having stated ambitions to reach 2.02 million MT annually by 2030. These targets face obstacles following the October 2023 arrest of six rare earths executives, including Vietnam Rare Earth chairman Luu Anh Tuan, on tax-related charges.

The United States presents a contrasting profile: while ranking second in production at 45,000 MT in 2024, the nation holds only 1.9 million metric tons in reserves—seventh globally. Rare earths mining now occurs exclusively at California’s Mountain Pass facility, operated by MP Materials. The company is actively establishing downstream capabilities at its Fort Worth facility to convert Mountain Pass production into rare earth magnets and precursor products. Meanwhile, the US Department of Energy allocated $17.5 million in April 2024 for technologies to recover rare earths from secondary coal and coal by-products, indicating growing emphasis on domestic supply security.

Greenland’s 1.5 million metric tons in reserves remain undeveloped despite substantial potential. The island hosts two major projects: the Tanbreez project and the Kvanefjeld project. Critical Metals completed Stage 1 acquisition of Tanbreez in July 2024 and commenced drilling in September to refine resource models. Energy Transition Minerals has faced regulatory obstacles with Kvanefjeld, as Greenland’s government revoked the license over uranium extraction concerns. Though the company submitted a revised plan excluding uranium, it was rejected in September 2023, and the appeal remains pending as of October 2024.

The Strategic Importance of Rare Earth Reserves by Country: Beyond Reserve Statistics

Global rare earth production reached 390,000 MT in 2024, up from 376,000 MT in 2023, reflecting an aggressive expansion trajectory. Just a decade prior, global production stood barely above 100,000 MT, and the 200,000 MT threshold was not breached until 2019. This acceleration underscores why rare earth reserves by country distribution has become a central strategic concern.

The concentration of reserves reveals a structural vulnerability: the top three countries—China, Brazil, and India—control nearly 72 million of the 130 million MT in global reserves. Yet production capacity remains heavily skewed toward China, creating dependencies that reshape geopolitical relationships and supply chain architecture.

Environmental dimensions add urgency to reserve development discussions. Rare earths extraction inherently generates risks: the ore containing rare earths frequently harbors thorium and uranium, making waste streams radioactive. In-situ leaching operations in regions like Myanmar and southern China have created thousands of collection pools and triggered over 100 landslides in Ganzhou alone, with communities reporting water contamination and ecological collapse.

As demand for rare earths intensifies—driven by electric vehicle production, wind turbine manufacturing, advanced electronics, and clean energy infrastructure—the geopolitical significance of rare earth reserves by country will only deepen. Nations holding substantial reserves face mounting pressure to develop extraction capacity, while countries reliant on imports must secure long-term supply agreements or accelerate domestic substitution research.

The transformation in global rare earth dynamics has only begun, with emerging producers like Brazil and India positioned to challenge China’s historical control while nations like Greenland and new processing facilities in Australia could reshape competitive positioning within the decade.